![]() ![]() Control: those who lack the outcome or disease.Cases: those who have or have had the outcome or disease.2 groups are compared based on an outcome or the presence of disease:.Start from an outcome and work backward ( retrospectively) in time to see who had an exposure.Unable to include data on confounding variables Confounding variables A confound is an additional variable other than the independent variable that has an effect on the dependent variable, causing an erroneous relationship to be inferred between them.Causality, Validity, and Reliability because exposures and outcomes are measured simultaneously Demonstrating causality between an exposure and an outcome is the main objective of most published medical research. Simply because relationships are observed between 2 variables (i.e., associations or correlations) does not imply that one variable actually caused the outcome. Unable to determine causality Causality Causality is a relationship between 2 events in which 1 event causes the other. ![]()
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